The mystique of cats arises from their lithe bodies, sinuous movements and slit-pupil eyes. Many would add to that list of traits their finicky attitude toward a host of things, and blithe disregard of many of their owners' requests! Yet while every cat is different, there are some behaviors that are common to all, and a thorough understanding of the biological and psychological reasons for these common behaviors will enable you to appreciate much more about the feline members of your family.

Purring

All domestic cats purr, but they don't all sound the same when they do. Just as we humans sing anywhere from soprano to bass, our cats purr in a frequency from about 25 to 150 vibrations per second. New research shows that to be the precise frequency range to promote healing and increase bone density. This may be the evolutionary reason for the cat's purr: the ability to heal injury by this unique sound.

That new discovery leads science to question whether the same sound can prove valuable to humans who suffer loss of bone density (osteoporosis) and/or muscle atrophy (wasting). NASA has long researched ways for astronauts to cope with extended periods of zero gravity and the enforced periods of physical stillness during space travel. The so-called dowager's hump marking the osteoporosis of many elderly women and the wasting of diseases that rob mobility (e.g. multiple sclerosis, muscular dystrophy) may all be conditions that will benefit from a more complete understanding of the purring of our cats.

If purring is responsible for the long-term skeletal and muscular health of the cat, it may also be the source of the ‘nine lives’ legend, since despite significant injury, felines will often heal to the surprise of their doctors and families, in thanks to their unique ability to purr at the healing frequencies.

The purring of cats has been remarked upon for centuries, but how they actually do it is unknown. Veterinary colleges perform autopsies on animals as part of student training and research; none have uncovered a specific organ responsible for this phenomenon, nor have they identified any particular group of organs as the definitive source of the sound.

The cat's voice box (meaning the larynx and vocal chords) certainly might be the source; scientists and cat owners alike have often thought purring was a vibration in the throat. Today, research is beginning to indicate that purring actually starts in the cat's chest. There, vibrations of the wall of a major blood vessel travel to the animal's upper air passages. The result is the purring we've come to associate with feline contentment.

Another theory under investigation is that the cat can vibrate the muscles of its voice box at will, manipulating the larynx and vocal chords to create a valve effect by dilation and constriction as air passes over these organs. With each inhalation and exhalation, the rapid opening and closing of the ‘valve’ the cat has created by this controlled muscle manipulation then creates the purring sound.

Although all cats purr, only some cats produce a secondary sound along with that purring; these other tones are lower than the purring itself.

In the wild, the big cats that roar purr on the exhale only, whereas the smaller non-roaring cats purr just as your house pet does. Other animals also purr and the mechanism is unknown for those species as well. Time your next visit to the zoo to coincide with the elephants' dinner and you'll hear them purr for yourself!

Most of us associate purring as an expression of the cat's satisfaction because we usually hear the sound when we are stroking, feeding or otherwise loving our feline companions. Breeders know that nursing moms purr while their kittens feed, an apparently pleasurable activity for the queen.

Yet animal techs and veterinarians will attest to the fact that many cats purr when stressed, notably during a clinic visit. Some purr while recovering from surgery, perhaps because of the bone healing advantages of the sound itself. Kittens purr in their sleep. As Leslie A. Lyons, an assistant professor at the School of Veterinary Medicine at the University of California, Davis, explained in an article in Scientific American, “...not all purring cats appear to be content or pleased with their current circumstances.”

Further, Lyons has posited that the purring of cats might be why they do not suffer conditions common to dogs, notably dysplasia and osteoporosis.

Kneading

When applied to cats, this term is describing the pressing of one front paw and then the other, reminiscent of a baker's actions when making bread dough.

Kittens appear to knead instinctively and use this motion from birth onward to aid (their mother's) milk flow as they nurse. Adult cats seem to knead when they are content and many purr while doing so. Whether this is simply the mature cat recreating a comforting act from their infancy, or an actual need (no pun intended!) to exercise their paws or legs is unknown. Cat owners often remark on the uniqueness of the locations choosen for this activity; sites range from the living room sofa cushions to the fur of another pet.

Claw scratching and sharpening

The retractable claws of the cat require regular cleaning and the animal has a perfect way to accomplish that — they extend them and scratch surfaces that produce enough friction to keep them at their best. Once their claws are clean, the cat will re-sheath. Since the behavior is necessary for the cat's health, don't wait until your cat opts to use your antique dresser to do it! Invest in a well-designed, good quality scratching post so the animal can satisfy this necessary behavior in a harmless way.

Let's talk for a moment about ‘cat scratch fever’, the common name for cat scratch disease. Estimates are that 40 percent of all cats will carry the bacteria Bartonella henselae at some point in their lives, most when they are kittens. The bacteria are spread by bites and scratches and can cause serious illness in people with compromised immune systems. There are no signs of illness in your cat, which makes taking precautions all the time a very good idea.

1. Avoid aggressive play (the type of roughhousing that leads the cat to bite and scratch).

2. Immediately washing any bite or scratch from any cat, even if mild.

3. Keep cats away from any open wounds you may currently have.

Signs of illness in humans can include fever, infection at the site of the scratch/bite and swollen lymph nodes. Seek prompt medical attention if you believe you may have contracted the disease; it responds promptly to antibiotic treatment.

Body language: ears and eyes

Different breeds of cats have different ear shapes, but they all use them to communicate what they are thinking and feeling. While an individual cat's ear position may mean something truly unique at any given moment, overall the following guidelines will apply to all felines.

The distinctive slit pupils and round to almond shaped eyes (depending on breed) also reflect the cat's mood and thoughts. These changes, combined with ear movements, can present an accurate read on the cat's thoughts and moods.

A cat at rest, meaning either sitting or lying at ease in a comfortable situation will have its ears up, tilted a bit forward and outward — pricked, as some describe the position. In this contented pose, the cat's eyes will be in a neutral position, perhaps slightly drowsy looking, with the pupils unchanged from normal centered position. If dilated at all, it is only to the cat's visual needs in the room.

If a noise, movement or scent captures that resting cat's attention, its ears will stand up more and its eyes will become a bit wider. This posture indicates alertness without anxiety.

In the alert position, if the cat determines that the disturbance is dangerous in some way, it will flatten its ears out sideways while dilating its pupils. Both are solid indicators of fear or anxiety.

The cat may begin to display defensive behaviors at this stage, and will show its increasing annoyance by turning the ears up and back and further dilating the pupils.

Situations of real danger will move the cat to an aggressive fearful state in which it is ready to attack or to defend from attack. An attack-ready cat will have its ears smoothly back along its head. In this position, they do not protrude and cannot be grabbed by an opponent. The eyes become mostly pupil as the more fearful the cat, the more they dilate.

Oral communication

The sounds cats make are incredibly varied and those who own more than one cat can attest to the fact that each seems to have its own vocabulary.

In general, all cats meow, but different meows can mean different things. You will quickly learn to separate the meow that means ‘feed me’ from the meow that means ‘rub my back’.

Chirping noises are conversational; chirring noises distort the normal meow and are typically used by mother cats to summon their kittens.

All female cats howl distinctively when they are in heat; this is called caterwauling and some may chip in between the wailing noises. These cries are often mistaken for those of a human infant in pain.

Hissing is a warning used by cats to say ‘get away NOW’. Everyone in your home should be taught to heed that warning by backing carefully away from the hissing animal.

Behavior problems & solutions

Visit any animal shelter and ask why people surrender the cat they had welcomed into their family and hoped to love for years to come. The answer, nine times out of ten, is inappropriate urination. Either the cat refused to use the litter box or the animal consistently sprayed urine in the home. Families will usually try a number of remedies before they give an animal up for adoption, but the bottom line is these problems make life untenable for many people. Without a workable solution, owners quickly lose their patience and cats ultimately lose their homes.

Start by visiting your veterinarian. The doctor will determine whether your cat has a urinary tract infection (UTI) or any other physical problem grouped within Feline Lower Urinary Tract Disease (FLUTD).

FLUTD covers a number of conditions that affect cats' urination. One is urolithiasis, which is when stones form from accumulations of mineral crystals in the animal's urinary tract. As with kidney stones in humans, this can create enough of a blockage to make urination painful or impossible.

Pay close attention to your cat's urinary habits and watch for symptoms of disease and/or discomfort if those regular voiding habits change. A cat that had been using its litter box correctly that suddenly begins urinating somewhere else is having a problem. And please, don't fall into the common error of anthropomorphizing the behavior and assume it is willful and directed against you or another family member, human or animal.

A cat with urolithiasis may cry when it tries to urinate because of the pain caused by the stones.

The urine of a cat with any FLUTD condition may be tinged with blood.

The cat may suddenly begin to urinate outside of the litter box.

A cat suffering any urological problem may begin to lick its genital area excessively.

Your veterinarian can treat many of the FLUTD conditions if you bring the cat in for care promptly. Simply changing diet and feeding practices can reduce or eliminate the formation of urinary stones, called uroliths. Reducing the pH of the cat's urine can prove beneficial as well. Foods that are lower in certain minerals can help. (The most common of cat uroliths are called struvites; these particular stones are made of magnesium, ammonium and phosphate crystals that form in the animal's urine.)

After a thorough veterinary check-up and a clean bill of health, the most likely culprit if your cat is urinating inappropriately is the condition of the litter box itself.

Cats are incredibly fastidious animals and WILL NOT use a litter box that THEY perceive is unclean. Note that we are talking about the condition of the box from the cat's perception, NOT yours! Even if you don't smell anything, your cat may – and may find it too offensive to use.

Make litter box care and maintenance routine and your healthy cat(s) will be happy to use them correctly.

The rule of thumb for litter boxes is to have one more box than you have cats. One cat, two litter boxes; five cats, six litter boxes.

Some folks swear by covered litter boxes; however, many cats reject them. This appears to be because the enclosed space holds and magnifies the odors of their waste. If your cat has begun to void inappropriately and the litter box is covered, try this remedy first: remove the cover, thoroughly clean the litter box, replace with fresh litter and see if your cat responds with the behavior you desire. Often, this change alone will cure errant felines!

With the right litter box, what kind of litter should you use? There are fans for every type of litter sold at your local pet store or supermarket. You may select any of them for your cat, but if it begins to urinate elsewhere, recognize that the litter you like may be unpleasant for your pet. Perfumed litters, or those with chemical sanitizers may be overwhelmingly scented from your cat's perspective. When in doubt, switch to an unscented clay litter. If the cat returns to the litter box, you will know that your previous litter choice was offensive to your feline.

Most litter boxes are made out of plastic. In the same way the plastic food storage containers begin to lose color and collect odors over time, so does the cat box. A new litter box each year for a single cat will mean the box itself is never the cause for outside urination.

From there on, it's all about maintenance. No matter what box or litter you've selected, if you don't keep it immaculate, your cat(s) won't use it. And remember, your cat's nose and eyes are far more sensitive than yours: Something that looks and smells all right to you may be stale and fetid to them.

For a one-cat household, most veterinarians advise the daily removal of fecal matter and a weekly cleaning/removal/replacement of litter. Bearing in mind the sensitivity of your cat's nose, avoid harsh cleaning compounds. Dump the used litter and scrub the box with hot water until clean and fresh smelling. Dry it thoroughly, put in fresh litter and your cat should head to it whenever the urge strikes, instead of to the living room area rug!

Assuming one or more of these practices restores your cat's use of the litter box, be sure to truly remove any residual odor or stain they left elsewhere. Cats are territorial and will feel compelled to revisit the site if they can smell it.

While there are a host of products designed to remove cat urine, the best performers overall are enzymatic cleaners that chemically break down the compounds that cause odor; these also ‘lift’ the urine stain out of the carpet or upholstery. For those who prefer to stay away from such cleaning agents, the application of citrus (lemon, orange or lime) oils can create an effective barrier against your cat's return. Be sure to test first to ascertain that the fabric or carpet will not stain from the oil. Reapply the oil regularly to keep your cat away from the site of previous accidents.

Aversive training: modify your cat's behavior

Cats, like any other animal, can develop different behavior problems at various times. They do not respond to the reward-based training that works on some other animals, but they learn quickly from aversion training, a practice recommended by The Humane Society of the U.S. (THS).

According to THS, aversive training uses things your cat finds unpleasant to correct inappropriate or dangerous behaviors. For example, the organization advises that a cat chewing on electrical cords can be corrected of the habit if you rub hot sauce on the cords. They dislike hot pepper sauces intensely and will react vigorously; yet unlike yelling or threatening the animal, you stay out of the picture since as far as the cat knows, you had nothing to do with the surprisingly bad taste episode.

Judicious use of tastes, smells and textures that cats dislike can cure a variety of misbehaviors. Surprise all works. If your cat has been clawing its way up the livingroom drapes, keep a can of compressed air at hand when you're on the sofa. When the cat starts up the drapes (with it's back to you), surprise it with a blast from the air can. The cat will react in shock and leave the drapes, usually for good.

The THS suggests the following materials for use in aversive training:

Bad tastes: cats hate hot pepper sauces, which are available in your supermarket's condiment aisle. If you prefer, there are several non-toxic &8216;off’ drops and sprays at your local pet store. This is a passive approach to correcting the cat's actions. You can apply pepper sauces when it is convenient for you, but need not be present when the behavior occurs.

Bad smells: cats' superior sense of smell makes strong scents intolerable for them, particularly perfumes, colognes and anything citrus. Passively, you can use scents to make certain areas or articles off limits. Actively, you can keep a spray bottle of cologne to ‘zap’ your cat when it begins a forbidden activity. Remain out of the cat's line of sight and the cat will not associate you with the blast of “Evening in Paris”.

Loud startles: Take an empty beverage can, drop in a few pennies and tape it shut. When you see the cat across the room is about to jump on the coffee table, throw the can near by. The loud noise will startle the cat sufficiently to stop the behavior, and to stay associated with the act. Crossing guard and/or referee whistles work just as well, but in a pinch you can drop a heavy book or skillet and get the same results. Obviously, you must be present to use some of these loud startle methods; as long as the cat does not see you launch the projectile, it will not associate you with the negative surprise. Passively, you can stack empty cans around a plant the cat's been chewing on; when it leaps on the table to reach the plant, the cans will fall and startle the animal.

Nasty textures: cats dislike sticky surfaces and those with projecting textures like ribbed plastic or coir noir mats. To use this knowledge to keep them off tables or counters, cover a sheet of oaktag or cardboard with duct tape, sticky side out.

Finally, recognize that most of the inappropriate behaviors your cat is engaging in are about actual biological needs. Give the animal the healthy alternatives it needs and you'll avoid a lot of these problems in the first place. Scratching posts, cat toys, regular exercise and play times will all help keep your cat a well-behaved member of the family.

Curiosity

We've all heard the expression “Curiosity killed the cat” (where it came from originally is a mystery today; in the modern era, it is first found in “Schools and Schools” by O.Henry in 1909) and no one who knows a feline doubts the truth of the expression. Cats investigate everything with what seems to be an insatiable need to know — whether it's finding out what's at the bottom of the trash can or finding a way into the locked tool shed. Don't assume your cat is somehow different — the day your sedate Persian decides it has to open the medicine cabinet you'll want to know all the pill bottles are tightly sealed in child proof containers. Take the same precautions you would if an active toddler were coming to visit, and your cat will be safe despite its curiosity.

Unplug appliances where practical; otherwise, secure power cords against the wall with tape. Many cats will chew on grass or leaves; others seem only to want to dig up the dirt around them, checking for mice and bugs. Keep houseplants out of reach (and preferably out of their sight, curiosity being what it is!). If you've decided to share your life with a cat, it would be wise to stow or give away delicate knick knacks, glass windchimes and other fragile objects. And remember, cats often use that innate curiosity to find a cozy dark space all their own. If your cat is missing, check closets, cabinets, refrigerators, dryers — even under the car hood. Inquisitive felines end up in all of those places on a regular basis.

Intelligence

Before we can evaluate the intelligence of cats, think about how we quantify intelligence overall. For centuries, people believed that babies were helpless. We bound them tightly, parked them in a crib or cradle or sling, fed them pap and sang them to sleep. Today, that would be more like child abuse! Now we know that infants are learning each and every minute, processing information about the world around them, storing concepts, stocking their inborn language center with sounds. And research is showing that cats also have innate mental abilities that are present from the start.

Anecdotally, many have remarked that kittens appear to develop a preference for a particular position and nipple when nursing; veterinary research has shown more than that: a kitten can be taught to distinguish between different artificial nipples by texture, smell or location. At two days, a kitten can choose between two nipples, one giving milk and one not, by the texture alone. At three days, the kitten can identify the milk giving nipple by smell. And within the first week of life, orientation develops. At first, take a newborn kitten away from mother and litter mates and place it elsewhere and it will just crawl in circles. By the end of that first week, although still sightless, the kitten will be able to orient itself towards the nest by smell, and will use that ability to distinguish different parts of the room or cage. Once their eyes are open, visual cues begin to take ascendancy and by the time the kitten is four weeks old, they predominate over those received by scent. These behaviors may be largely inherited, but each of them is modified by learning.

Intelligence, or brain capacity and power, is hallmarked by the ability to digest new information and handle it in such a way as it does something of value. In cats (as in other species) different personality types affect the willingness to learn and how knowledge is applied.

Because of the nature of how laboratory tests are conducted, it is difficult to set up conditions that enable cats to show what they know (or how they learned it). Cats do not respond to rewards or punishment the way dogs or chimpanzees will. On their own, cats have very loose social structures. They are self-sufficient, have no herd instincts and no visible desire to please or appease. This makes the laboratory environment less than ideal for testing their intelligence.

Yet in the wild — and in the homes of cat owners — it is obvious that cats learn. They make all sorts of discoveries thanks to their innate curiosity; then they adapt their strategies to suit the circumstances. First and foremost, cats are highly specialized predators. Tests designed to take those skills into account show felines are intelligent.

Like many hunters, cats do best with instrumental learning situations; we humans know this as trial and error.